Work time study is a technique used in production and operations management. It involves measuring and analyzing the time spent performing a task or job, with the aim of identifying and eliminating unproductive times and optimizing production efficiency.
Origins of Work Study
Several people are considered the inventors of time studies. One of the most well-known is Frederick Winslow Taylor, who developed his theory on work measurement in the 1880s and is considered the father of “time and motion.” Other pioneers in work time study include Frank and Lillian Gilbreth, who developed the “chrono-photography” technique to analyze movement in performing work. Henry Ford is also considered one of the inventors of time studies, as he used this technique in his mass production process for automobiles.
Work study has its origins in the 18th century with the French engineer Jean Rodolphe Perronet, who introduced the concept of measuring the time needed to perform a task and establish performance standards. However, the most important development in work study occurred in the early 20th century with scientific management proposed by Frederick Taylor, who applied industrial engineering principles to the analysis of human work.
Frederick Winslow Taylor
Frederick Winslow Taylor is considered the father of “time and motion,” and is one of the pioneers in work time study. He was born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, in 1856 and graduated from Harvard University in 1878. After working as an apprentice in a factory, he began to develop his theory on work measurement, which was based on the idea that the time spent performing a task could be measured and analyzed to optimize production efficiency. In 1911, he published his book “The Principles of Scientific Management,” which became one of the most influential texts in production and operations management. Taylor died in 1915.
Taylor’s article “Shop Management” was a milestone in the history of work study, as it presented a series of techniques to optimize the design and execution of tasks, such as:
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Time study: involves measuring with a stopwatch the time it takes a worker to perform a specific operation, in order to establish a standard time that serves as a basis for calculating productive capacity and wage incentives.
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Standardization: involves defining the best conditions and methods for performing each task, as well as the necessary tools and materials, in order to reduce variability and errors in the production process.
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Planning: involves organizing the activities and resources necessary to achieve the planned objectives, using techniques such as calculation rules, instruction cards, or mnemonic systems.
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Control: involves verifying compliance with established standards and correcting deviations that occur, using techniques such as cost systems or routing systems.
Work study had a great influence on the industrial and social development of the 20th century, as it allowed for increasing the productivity and competitiveness of companies. However, it also received criticism from some sectors that considered it dehumanized the worker by treating them like a machine and reducing their autonomy and initiative. Additionally, work study did not always take into account the ergonomic or psychological conditions of work.
Frank and Lillian Gilbreth
Frank and Lillian Gilbreth were a couple of engineers and psychologists who developed the “chrono-photography” technique to analyze movement in performing work. They were born in the 1870s and met while working at the same company. Together, they began to research and develop new techniques to improve production efficiency, and in 1911, they published their book “The Psychology of Management.” In this book, they present their theory on “chrono-photography,” which involves taking photographs of a worker while performing a task to analyze their movement and determine how it can be optimized. The Gilbreths died in 1924 and 1925, respectively.
Henry Ford
Henry Ford was an American businessman and magnate in the automotive industry. He was born in 1863 in Dearborn, Michigan, and founded the Ford Motor Company in 1903. Ford is known for his innovative mass production technique for automobiles, which revolutionized the industry and allowed him to offer his products at affordable prices for the working class. To achieve this, Ford used a series of production management techniques, including work time study. In 1914, he introduced the assembly line production system, which allowed him to further increase efficiency in his production process. Ford died in 1947.
Evolution of New Perspectives on Work Study
From the mid-20th century, work study evolved towards new perspectives that sought to integrate human and social aspects into technical analysis.
Some of these currents were:
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The human relations school: emerged from studies conducted by Elton Mayo at the Hawthorne factory between 1927 and 1932. These studies showed that factors such as communication, participation, and recognition influenced worker performance more than physical or salary conditions. The human relations school emphasized the importance of motivation, leadership, and communication at work.
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Systems theory: emerged from the work of Ludwig von Bertalanffy and other authors who proposed a holistic and interdisciplinary view of reality. Systems theory applied to work study considers that an organization is a system composed of several interrelated and interdependent subsystems that interact with their environment. Systems theory proposes integrated and flexible management that adapts to changes and the needs of each situation.
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Ergonomics: is defined as the science that studies the adaptation of work to humans. Ergonomics is concerned with improving the physical, environmental, and organizational conditions of work to prevent occupational risks and improve the well-being and effectiveness of workers. Ergonomics encompasses aspects such as workplace design, lighting, noise, temperature, equipment, or schedules.
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The sociotechnical approach: was developed from studies conducted by Eric Trist and other researchers at the Tavistock Institute in England between 1949 and 1966. The sociotechnical approach suggests that work study should take into account both the technical and social aspects of the production process. The sociotechnical approach proposes a participatory and democratic organization that promotes autonomy, cooperation, and learning among workers.
New Challenges of Work Study Today
Work study continues to be a relevant discipline today, as it faces new challenges and opportunities derived from technological advances, economic and social transformations, or environmental demands. Some current trends in work study are:
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Telework: involves performing work from a location other than the usual one through the use of information and communication technologies (ICT). Telework offers advantages such as schedule flexibility, time and money savings, or family and personal reconciliation. However, telework also implies challenges such as the lack of direct contact with colleagues or clients, the difficulty in disconnecting from work, or the need to have an adequate space and a good internet connection.
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Collaborative work: refers to the way of working in a team that involves sharing knowledge, resources, and responsibilities to achieve a common goal. Collaborative work is based on principles such as trust, respect, communication, or mutual learning. Collaborative work benefits from the use of ICTs that facilitate coordination and information exchange among team members.
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Corporate social responsibility: is understood as the voluntary commitment of organizations to sustainable development and social welfare. Corporate social responsibility involves integrating ethical, social, and environmental criteria into business decisions and activities. Corporate social responsibility contributes to improving the reputation and image of organizations, as well as generating value for their stakeholders.
How is the Study Conducted?
Alright, enough with the long explanation… after telling you all of the above, just remember that basically, it’s about measuring the time spent performing a task in a company, with the aim of optimizing processes and improving productivity. To do this, a qualified or representative worker from the group is selected and the objective of the study is explained to them. Then, the task is divided into elements and the time spent on each of them is measured. Finally, standard and frequency times are calculated to plan production, make budgets, set prices, etc.
There are different techniques for carrying out the measurement, such as time studies with a stopwatch, work sampling, standard data, predetermined time systems, etc.
Work Measurement and Industrial Time Study
Work measurement consists of 8 phases, which involve selecting the task to study, dividing it into elements, measuring the time of each step, establishing the rating, calculating normal times, frequency times, and the standard time.
Industrial time study, on the other hand, is a measurement technique that seeks to record the time and work pace corresponding to the elements of a task, in order to establish the standard time for them. To perform this task, it is necessary to have the support of qualified workers or to record the task with video.
There are some basic criteria that must be followed in this process, such as recording manual and mechanical work separately, dividing the operation into phases, making the greatest possible detail of the work, choosing clearly recognizable measurement points, among others.
Identification of Our Time Study
We must be able to find our study to consult it in the future and know under what conditions that specific study was conducted, so we must answer some questions that help us with this:
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Name of the timekeeper: Who is in charge of taking the time?
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What day is it? Date.
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From when to when did the study last: Moment and duration of the time study.
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Personal data of the operator: What is their name and how old are they?
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What type of machine or work equipment do they use?
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What is the maximum speed of the machine and what is the one being used for the study?
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How is the workplace organized?
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Environmental factors: How much do light, sound, heat, and dust influence?
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What is being produced?
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In what process of the product is the time study being done?
Types of Time Study
We read in many books and studies that these two types of time study exist: snap-back timing and continuous timing, but the truth is that this is based on old stopwatches that are already obsolete, so we are not going to continue treating this topic as classical literature does. Nowadays we have digital stopwatches that give us the clean time of each lap without losses. Moreover, we have the CronometrasApp app that automates the recording of each time associated with each element.
Rating Work Pace
Let’s see how a worker’s performance is rated in a time study. It’s like comparing a person’s work speed with a mental image of what “normal” work is that an industrial engineer has. This engineer first evaluates the difficulty of the work and then compares the observed activity with their imagined concept through a rating scale.
The rating scale aims to balance external factors that affect the work pace and thus obtain the normal time.
To calculate the normal time, the formula is used: normal time = actual time x rating factor.
Rating scales at standard pace
Normal - optimal performance scales:
- 60-80 Bedaux
- 75-100
- 100-133
- 100-140 % British Standard
Westinghouse Method
The Westinghouse method seeks to evaluate activities and the time they take at work. Considerations are made about four key factors: skill, effort, conditions, and consistency. Each of these factors has a determined level that can be measured and compared with a normal concept. For example, skill is defined as the expertise resulting from a method and is judged based on definitions and deviations from what is considered normal.
Additionally, there are algebraic levels for each degree of each factor, such as skill, effort, conditions, and consistency. Thus, we can calculate Tn, which is equal to To multiplied by (1 +/- fv), where fv is the value obtained from the evaluated factors.
Frequency Times
Frequency times are a concept used in the analysis of times and movements in industry. These times are used to classify work activities into three categories:
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Regular activities: These are activities that are performed with a certain frequency and are expected to be repetitive and precise in terms of duration.
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Irregular activities: These are activities that are not regular and may vary in terms of duration and frequency.
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Strange activities: These are activities that are rare or unusual and are not included in the category of regular or irregular activities.
Knowledge of frequency times is important for the optimization of production processes, as it allows for identifying areas that require improvement and taking measures to increase efficiency and reduce cycle times.
Work Allowances
Work allowances are used to calculate the standard time in which a worker can perform their work efficiently. There are two types of allowances:
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Rest allowances:
- Constant or fixed
- Variable
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Contingency allowances: These refer to unavoidable waits that may be caused by the machine or the worker.
Allowances are expressed in percentages and are applied to the basic time to obtain the standard time. In some cases, it is convenient to define the frequency of presentation of the allowances to be able to calculate them adequately.